|
|
Line 197: |
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| Database | ISAAA.org’, n.d.)</a>.</p> | | Database | ISAAA.org’, n.d.)</a>.</p> |
| <p style="text-align: justify; margin-bottom: 1em;"> | | <p style="text-align: justify; margin-bottom: 1em;"> |
− | <b>Current numbers on GM crops</b><br> | + | <b>Current Numbers on GM Crops</b><br> |
| <i>World</i><br>As stated above, many GM crops are relevant for food production today, be it indirectly | | <i>World</i><br>As stated above, many GM crops are relevant for food production today, be it indirectly |
| for | | for |
Line 280: |
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| <p style="text-align: justify; margin-bottom: 1em;"> | | <p style="text-align: justify; margin-bottom: 1em;"> |
| <b>Modern Methods in Breeding</b><br> | | <b>Modern Methods in Breeding</b><br> |
− | The traditional way of breeding, as explained above, although generating many domestic plants and animals, | + | The traditional way of breeding, as explained above, although having generated many domestic plants and animals, |
| is | | is |
| relatively | | relatively |
| slow and limited by the available traits individuals express. Modern breeding methods enhance the trait | | slow and limited by the available traits individuals express. Modern breeding methods enhance the trait |
| spectrum and the pace | | spectrum and the pace |
− | in which new traits can be discovered and implemented to crops or animals. </p> | + | in which new traits can be discovered and implemented to crops and animals. </p> |
| <p style="text-align: justify; margin-bottom: 1em;"> | | <p style="text-align: justify; margin-bottom: 1em;"> |
| <i>Plant Mutagenesis</i><br> | | <i>Plant Mutagenesis</i><br> |
Line 291: |
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| variability of | | variability of |
| traits. | | traits. |
− | Variations found in nature do not represent the original spectra of spontaneous mutation due to the fact | + | Variations found in nature do not represent the original spectra of spontaneous mutations due to the fact |
| that | | that |
| they are | | they are |
Line 300: |
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| for | | for |
| instance substances interacting with the DNA, or of physical origin, such as ionizing radiation | | instance substances interacting with the DNA, or of physical origin, such as ionizing radiation |
− | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13102818.2015.1087333">(Oladosu et al., 2016)</a>. | + | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13102818.2015.1087333" target = "_blank">(Oladosu et al., 2016)</a>. |
| After using the mutagen on the crops, mostly seeds, seedlings or cell cultures from which single cells can | | After using the mutagen on the crops, mostly seeds, seedlings or cell cultures from which single cells can |
| be | | be |
Line 314: |
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| evaluate | | evaluate |
| recessive | | recessive |
− | mutations. Selection then takes place in form of phenotypical, physical or molecular test to determine for | + | mutations. Selection then takes place in form of phenotypical, physical or molecular testing to determine for |
| instance plant | | instance plant |
| height, earliness of maturity and biochemical composition. Mutagenesis breeding has impacted agriculture | | height, earliness of maturity and biochemical composition. Mutagenesis breeding has impacted agriculture |
− | massively, with | + | massively with |
| more than 3.300 entries to the Mutant Variety Database | | more than 3.300 entries to the Mutant Variety Database |
− | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://mvd.iaea.org/#!Search?page=1&size=500&sortby=Name&sort=ASC">(‘Mutant | + | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://mvd.iaea.org/#!Search?page=1&size=500&sortby=Name&sort=ASC" target = "_blank">(‘Mutant |
| Variety Database’, | | Variety Database’, |
| n.d.)</a>, | | n.d.)</a>, |
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| achieved | | achieved |
| either directly or indirectly. The direct approach utilizes a method called microparticle bombardment | | either directly or indirectly. The direct approach utilizes a method called microparticle bombardment |
− | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-3054.1990.tb05888.x">(Sanford, 1990)</a>. | + | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-3054.1990.tb05888.x" target = "_blank">(Sanford, 1990)</a>. |
| Developed in the 1980´s, engineered DNA is coated on microparticles of either gold or tungsten and then | | Developed in the 1980´s, engineered DNA is coated on microparticles of either gold or tungsten and then |
| shot with high velocity at the target organism using high pressure helium gas. The DNA fragments can then | | shot with high velocity at the target organism using high pressure helium gas. The DNA fragments can then |
Line 343: |
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| but particle | | but particle |
| bombardment is the most effective. The indirect approach makes use of a vector: the soil bacterium | | bombardment is the most effective. The indirect approach makes use of a vector: the soil bacterium |
− | Agrobacterium | + | <i>Agrobacterium |
− | tumefaciens | + | tumefaciens</i> |
| naturally infects plants and alters its hosts genome via a plasmid called Ti-plasmid. This plasmid can be | | naturally infects plants and alters its hosts genome via a plasmid called Ti-plasmid. This plasmid can be |
| engineered to carry | | engineered to carry |
− | genes coding for a desired traits instead of its natural genes for infection. With the development of a | + | genes coding for a desired trait instead of its natural genes for infection. With the development of a |
| method | | method |
| called | | called |
| CRISPR/Cas9 and other variants genetic engineering in plants got much easier | | CRISPR/Cas9 and other variants genetic engineering in plants got much easier |
− | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1231143">(Cong et al., 2013</a>; | + | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1231143" target = "_blank">(Cong et al., 2013</a>; |
− | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1095/biolreprod.114.123935">DeMayo & Spencer, 2014</a>; | + | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1095/biolreprod.114.123935" target = "_blank">DeMayo & Spencer, 2014</a>; |
− | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nprot.2013.143">Ran et al., 2013)</a>. | + | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nprot.2013.143" target = "_blank">Ran et al., 2013)</a>. |
| This system is found in bacteria where it serves as a defence mechanism against viruses. The endonuclease | | This system is found in bacteria where it serves as a defence mechanism against viruses. The endonuclease |
| is | | is |
| guided to its | | guided to its |
− | target cutting site via a guide mRNA where it induces a double strand break (DBS). The DBS can be repaired | + | target cutting site via a guide RNA where it induces a double strand break (DBS). The DBS can be repaired |
| in | | in |
| two distinct | | two distinct |
| ways. Non-homologous end joining leads to a small deletion while homologous recombination allows for the | | ways. Non-homologous end joining leads to a small deletion while homologous recombination allows for the |
| integration of | | integration of |
− | donor DNA into the endogenous DNA. Thereby, the CRISPR method allows for small alteration or hole gene | + | donor DNA into the endogenous DNA. Thereby, the CRISPR method allows for small alteration or whole gene |
| insertions at target | | insertions at target |
| sites.<br>At this point it may be appropriate to introduce the two terms “cisgenic” and “transgenic”. | | sites.<br>At this point it may be appropriate to introduce the two terms “cisgenic” and “transgenic”. |
Line 370: |
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| organism | | organism |
| which is | | which is |
− | sexually incompatible to the engineered organism, has been inserted.“Cisgenic” on the contrary describes | + | sexually incompatible to the engineered organism, has been inserted. “Cisgenic” on the contrary describes |
| genetic | | genetic |
| modifications within the boundaries of sexual compatibility. Therefore, cisgenic plants are similar to | | modifications within the boundaries of sexual compatibility. Therefore, cisgenic plants are similar to |
| traditionally bred | | traditionally bred |
− | plants <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.embor.7400769">(Schouten, Krens, & Jacobsen, | + | plants <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.embor.7400769" target = "_blank">(Schouten, Krens, & Jacobsen, |
| 2006)</a>. The most | | 2006)</a>. The most |
| obvious example | | obvious example |
| of transgenic plants are the many varieties of so | | of transgenic plants are the many varieties of so |
− | called “Bt” crops. Standing for Bacillus thuringiensis, into these plants a gene from the bacterium was | + | called “Bt” crops. Standing for <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i>, into these plants a gene from the bacterium was |
| integrated which | | integrated which |
| leads to the production of a crystal protein that is toxic to specific pest insects | | leads to the production of a crystal protein that is toxic to specific pest insects |
− | <a style="padding: 0" href="http://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2015/insecticidal-plants/">(‘Insecticidal | + | <a style="padding: 0" href="http://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2015/insecticidal-plants/" target = "_blank">(‘Insecticidal |
| Plants’, 2015)</a>.</p> | | Plants’, 2015)</a>.</p> |
| <p style="text-align: justify; margin-bottom: 1em;"> | | <p style="text-align: justify; margin-bottom: 1em;"> |
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| safety. | | safety. |
| Additionally many reviews exist summarizing GMO effects to a much broader scale possible here | | Additionally many reviews exist summarizing GMO effects to a much broader scale possible here |
− | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-012-0899-1">(Bawa & Anilakumar, 2013</a>; | + | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-012-0899-1" target = "_blank">(Bawa & Anilakumar, 2013</a>; |
− | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.3109/07388551.2013.823595">Nicolia, Manzo, Veronesi, & | + | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.3109/07388551.2013.823595" target = "_blank">Nicolia, Manzo, Veronesi, & |
| Rosellini, 2014</a>; | | Rosellini, 2014</a>; |
− | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2011.11.048">Snell et al., 2012</a>; | + | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2011.11.048" target = "_blank">Snell et al., 2012</a>; |
− | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fshw.2016.04.002">Zhang, Wohlhueter, & Zhang, | + | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fshw.2016.04.002" target = "_blank">Zhang, Wohlhueter, & Zhang, |
| 2016)</a>. | | 2016)</a>. |
− | In many of these, authors conclude that the application of GMO offers great opportunities but still has to | + | In many of these, authors conclude that the application of GMOs offers great opportunities but still has to |
| be | | be |
| carried out | | carried out |
| with precautions. A simple “yes” or “no” cannot be given | | with precautions. A simple “yes” or “no” cannot be given |
− | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fshw.2016.04.002">(Zhang et al., 2016)</a>. Still, | + | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fshw.2016.04.002" target = "_blank">(Zhang et al., 2016)</a>. Still, |
| due | | due |
| to the partly | | to the partly |
| contradictory | | contradictory |
| evidence, it cannot be said there is a consensus among scientists, according to | | evidence, it cannot be said there is a consensus among scientists, according to |
− | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-014-0034-1">Hilbeck et al., 2015</a>.</p> | + | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-014-0034-1" target = "_blank">Hilbeck et al., 2015</a>.</p> |
| <p style="text-align: justify; margin-bottom: 1em;"> | | <p style="text-align: justify; margin-bottom: 1em;"> |
− | <i>Benefits of GM crops</i><br> | + | <i>Benefits of GM Crops</i><br> |
− | Humanity faces several challenges in the coming decades. Among them are the increasing world population, a | + | Humanity faces several challenges in the coming decades. Amongst them are the increasing world population, a |
| decrease of | | decrease of |
| arable land or the bottleneck of traditional breeding methods | | arable land or the bottleneck of traditional breeding methods |
− | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fshw.2016.04.002">(Zhang et al., 2016)</a>. | + | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fshw.2016.04.002" target = "_blank">(Zhang et al., 2016)</a>. |
| To all of these, GMOs pose a genuine answer. The easiest way to produce more food for a growing population | | To all of these, GMOs pose a genuine answer. The easiest way to produce more food for a growing population |
| is to | | is to |
Line 419: |
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| which | | which |
| is the | | is the |
− | equivalent to the size of two South America’s | + | equivalent to the size of two South Americas |
− | <a style="padding: 0" href="http://www.marklynas.org/2013/04/time-to-call-out-the-anti-gmo-conspiracy-theory/">(‘Time | + | <a style="padding: 0" href="http://www.marklynas.org/2013/04/time-to-call-out-the-anti-gmo-conspiracy-theory/" target = "_blank">(‘Time |
| to call | | to call |
| out | | out |
| the anti-GMO conspiracy theory – Mark Lynas’, n.d.)</a>. | | the anti-GMO conspiracy theory – Mark Lynas’, n.d.)</a>. |
− | But food also needs to become nutritious. A good example here is “Golden Rice” | + | But food also needs to become more nutritious. A good example here is “Golden Rice” |
− | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.287.5451.303">(Ye et al., 2000)</a>, | + | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.287.5451.303" target = "_blank">(Ye et al., 2000)</a>, |
| which produces a precursor of vitamin A. The deficiency of vitamin A is estimated to kill more than half a | | which produces a precursor of vitamin A. The deficiency of vitamin A is estimated to kill more than half a |
| million | | million |
| children under the age of 5 each year | | children under the age of 5 each year |
− | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61690-0">(Black et al., 2008)</a> | + | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61690-0" target = "_blank">(Black et al., 2008)</a> |
− | and cause another half million irreversible cases of childhood blindness | + | and cause another half a million irreversible cases of childhood blindness |
− | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1600583">(Humphrey, West, & Sommer, | + | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1600583" target = "_blank">(Humphrey, West, & Sommer, |
| 1992)</a>.</p> | | 1992)</a>.</p> |
| <p style="text-align: justify; margin-bottom: 1em;"> | | <p style="text-align: justify; margin-bottom: 1em;"> |
− | <i>Risks of GM crops</i><br> | + | <i>Risks of GM Crops</i><br> |
| GMOs pose risks to its consumer as do crops deriving from traditional breeding. Major risks are toxicity, | | GMOs pose risks to its consumer as do crops deriving from traditional breeding. Major risks are toxicity, |
| allergenicity and genetic hazards emerging from the inserted or altered gene itself, the expressed | | allergenicity and genetic hazards emerging from the inserted or altered gene itself, the expressed |
Line 440: |
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| products | | products |
| of the metabolism, pleiotropic effects or the disruption of natural genes in the organism | | of the metabolism, pleiotropic effects or the disruption of natural genes in the organism |
− | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fshw.2016.04.002">(Zhang et al., 2016)</a>. | + | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fshw.2016.04.002" target = "_blank">(Zhang et al., 2016)</a>. |
| There have been reports on the strong allergenicity of “Starlink” maize, which is directly connected to | | There have been reports on the strong allergenicity of “Starlink” maize, which is directly connected to |
| the | | the |
| inserted gene | | inserted gene |
− | from Bacillus thuringiensis | + | from <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i> |
− | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.11.022">(Bravo, Gill, & Soberón, | + | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.11.022" target = "_blank">(Bravo, Gill, & Soberón, |
| 2007</a>; | | 2007</a>; |
− | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1051/agro/2010027">Sanchis, 2011</a>; | + | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1051/agro/2010027" target = "_blank">Sanchis, 2011</a>; |
− | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.en.39.010194.000403">Tabashnik, 1994</a>; | + | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.en.39.010194.000403" target = "_blank">Tabashnik, 1994</a>; |
− | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1071/CP13167">Werth, Boucher, Thornby, Walker, & Charles, | + | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1071/CP13167" target = "_blank">Werth, Boucher, Thornby, Walker, & Charles, |
| 2013)</a>. | | 2013)</a>. |
− | Also, GM crops can have an adverse ecological influence. For example, the weed species Amaranthus palmeri | + | Also, GM crops can have an adverse ecological influence. For example, the weed species <i>Amaranthus palmeri</i> |
| did | | did |
| evolve a | | evolve a |
| glyphosate resistance after years of glyphosate use on resistant cotton fields | | glyphosate resistance after years of glyphosate use on resistant cotton fields |
− | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1038/497024a">(Gilbert, 2013)</a>. | + | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1038/497024a" target = "_blank">(Gilbert, 2013)</a>. |
| Another possibility is the fact, that insect resistant crops infer with ecological food webs by shifting | | Another possibility is the fact, that insect resistant crops infer with ecological food webs by shifting |
| predator prey | | predator prey |
− | ratios. Moreover, targeted pests might decline and primary minor pest become major issues | + | ratios. Moreover, targeted pests might decline and primary minor pests become major issues |
− | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-012-0899-1">(Bawa & Anilakumar, 2013; Snow & | + | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-012-0899-1" target = "_blank">(Bawa & Anilakumar, 2013; Snow & |
| Palma, 1997)</a>.</p> | | Palma, 1997)</a>.</p> |
| <p style="text-align: justify; margin-bottom: 1em;"> | | <p style="text-align: justify; margin-bottom: 1em;"> |
| <b>Statements from Authorities</b><br> | | <b>Statements from Authorities</b><br> |
− | The Public Acceptance of Agricultural Biotechnologies (PABE) project revealed a range of questions | + | The "Public Acceptance of Agricultural Biotechnologies (PABE) project" revealed a range of questions |
| concerning | | concerning |
− | rather institutional considerations of the public, such as who is befitting from GMO use, by whom | + | rather institutional considerations of the public, such as who is benifitting from GMO use, by whom |
| consequences | | consequences |
| have | | have |
Line 471: |
Line 471: |
| been | | been |
| better | | better |
− | informed about their use | + | informed about GMO usage |
− | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/embo-reports/kve142">(Marris, 2001)</a>. | + | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/embo-reports/kve142" target = "_blank">(Marris, 2001)</a>. |
| For this reason, an overview of institutional statements might be appropriate.<br> | | For this reason, an overview of institutional statements might be appropriate.<br> |
| The European Commision (EC) published the book “A decade of EU-funded GMO research”. Within this endeavor | | The European Commision (EC) published the book “A decade of EU-funded GMO research”. Within this endeavor |
Line 480: |
Line 480: |
| food | | food |
| safety, | | safety, |
− | biomaterials and biofuels and risk assessment and management. It conclusively states: “The main conclusion | + | biomaterials, biofuels, risk assessment and management. It conclusively states: “The main conclusion |
| to be | | to be |
| drawn from the efforts of more than 130 research projects, covering a period of more than 25 years of | | drawn from the efforts of more than 130 research projects, covering a period of more than 25 years of |
Line 491: |
Line 491: |
| risky than e.g. conventional plant breeding technologies.” | | risky than e.g. conventional plant breeding technologies.” |
| <a style="padding: 0" | | <a style="padding: 0" |
− | href="https://op.europa.eu:443/en/publication-detail/-/publication/d1be9ff9-f3fa-4f3c-86a5-beb0882e0e65">(Publications | + | href="https://op.europa.eu:443/en/publication-detail/-/publication/d1be9ff9-f3fa-4f3c-86a5-beb0882e0e65" target = "_blank">(Publications |
− | Office of the European Union, 2010)</a><br> | + | Office of the European Union, 2010)</a>.<br> |
− | The National Academy of Sciences founded by the U.S. Congress summarize in their comprehensive report, | + | The National Academy of Sciences founded by the U.S. Congress summarizes in their comprehensive report, |
| that | | that |
| large | | large |
Line 508: |
Line 508: |
| less | | less |
| safe than | | safe than |
− | foods from non-GM crops. | + | foods from non-GM crops |
− | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.17226/23395">(Read "Genetically Engineered Crops, | + | <a style="padding: 0" href="https://doi.org/10.17226/23395" target = "_blank">(Read "Genetically Engineered Crops, |
− | n.d.)</a><br> | + | n.d.)</a>.<br> |
| The British Royal Society states the following to the question “Is it safe to eat GM crops?” on its | | The British Royal Society states the following to the question “Is it safe to eat GM crops?” on its |
| website: | | website: |
Line 533: |
Line 533: |
| varieties at least as safe to eat as new non GM varieties, which are not tested in this way.” | | varieties at least as safe to eat as new non GM varieties, which are not tested in this way.” |
| <a style="padding: 0" | | <a style="padding: 0" |
− | href="https://royalsociety.org/topics-policy/projects/gm-plants/is-it-safe-to-eat-gm-crops/">(‘Is it | + | href="https://royalsociety.org/topics-policy/projects/gm-plants/is-it-safe-to-eat-gm-crops/" target = "_blank">(‘Is it |
| safe | | safe |
| to | | to |
− | eat GM crops?’, n.d.)</a> | + | eat GM crops?’, n.d.)</a>. |
| </p> | | </p> |
| <p style="text-align: justify; margin-bottom: 1em;"> | | <p style="text-align: justify; margin-bottom: 1em;"> |
Line 545: |
Line 545: |
| confronted with the public debate too. Having experienced the public aversion towards GMO ourselves and | | confronted with the public debate too. Having experienced the public aversion towards GMO ourselves and |
| having | | having |
− | red about | + | read about |
| the many proposed justifications against it we realized that a direct exchange between the public and | | the many proposed justifications against it we realized that a direct exchange between the public and |
| experts | | experts |
| from all | | from all |
− | fields as well as diverse interest groups might provide a good common ground for an open discussion. In | + | fields as well as diverse interest groups might provide a good common ground for an open discussion. |
− | this
| + | |
− | way
| + | |
− | we hoped
| + | |
− | the perspective of being indoctrinated reflected my public studies might be avoided.
| + | |
| <br> | | <br> |
| </p> | | </p> |